Is hydrogen a viable fuel source for passenger vehicles?
Hydrogen-powered cars are still a nascent technology, but some major manufacturers are putting their money where their mouths are.
Words by Harry Weller
Story layout by Joseph Harding
Graphics: Hyundai, Toyota, supplied
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Hydrogen as a fuel source is bewitchingly attractive. It is the most abundant element on earth and needs only oxygen to produce energy. Its only byproducts are heat and water.
As clean and green fuel sources go, hydrogen is the poster child.
Little wonder it has been dubbed the "fuel of the future" and is being invested in heavily by governments and companies around the world.
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These regions are prospective for high purity thick rock salt accumulations that could support underground hydrogen storage in salt caverns. Image credit: Geoscience Australia which is © Commonwealth of Australia and is provided under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence and is subject to the disclaimer of warranties in section 5 of that licence.
These regions are prospective for high purity thick rock salt accumulations that could support underground hydrogen storage in salt caverns. Image credit: Geoscience Australia which is © Commonwealth of Australia and is provided under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence and is subject to the disclaimer of warranties in section 5 of that licence.
So why, if it has such promise, is hydrogen struggling to take off? And why are battery electric vehicles (BEV) currently far more popular even as the global transport sector shifts towards reducing emissions solutions?
In 2023, Australians bought 87,000 cars powered solely by electricity – almost triple that of the year before – yet only six hydrogen-powered cars found homes – half that of the year prior.
With that in mind, let’s look at the advantages, limitations and future of hydrogen as a fuel source.
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Understanding hydrogen-powered vehicles
Fuel cell electric vehicles versus hydrogen internal combustion engines
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There are two main types of hydrogen-powered vehicles:
- Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV), which are being invested in by market leaders such as Hyundai, Toyota and Honda
- Hydrogen internal combustion engines (HICE) which are primarily being championed by Toyota
Both approaches use hydrogen as fuel but differ in how they convert that fuel into power.
In an FCEV, hydrogen is fed into a fuel cell stack where it reacts with oxygen to produce electricity. This electricity powers electric motors which are then used to turn the wheels.
FCEV advantages include zero tailpipe emissions, greater energy density than most battery-electric vehicles and higher efficiency.
A HICE vehicle, meanwhile, uses hydrogen to power a combustion engine. Hydrogen is injected into the combustion chamber where it reacts with oxygen to create an explosion that drives a piston.
HICE vehicles can achieve near-zero carbon emissions, yet still emit some pollutants such as nitrous oxide. HICE vehicles are also around 50 per cent less efficient than FCEVs, meaning they need twice the fuel to travel the same distance.
However, as they use existing combustion engines, they are less costly to produce and purchase.
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Green hydrogen pipeline by region. Image credit: Rystad Energy via Renew Economy
Green hydrogen pipeline by region. Image credit: Rystad Energy via Renew Economy
In both instances, hydrogen is stored in onboard tanks either as a pressurised gas or as a liquid kept below -253°C. Storing hydrogen as a liquid is advantageous, as 75 per cent more fuel can be stored in the same space.
However, it will boil off if not kept cool.
Let's take a closer look at some of Australia's hydrogen refuelling stations.
At Christmas Creek in Western Australia's Pilbara, a refuelling site is under construction for Fortescue. It is designed to support a fleet of full-size hydrogen fuel-powered coaches.
Also under construction is a site at Sun Metals Zinc Refinery south of Townsville, to be operated by Ark Energy Corporation. The main usage case is to support five new heavy haulage trucks.
CSIRO Clayton boasts a facility designed to enable research into hydrogen's utility in mobility applications, in collaboration with Swinburne University of Technology's Victoria Hydrogen Hub.
Down in Tasmania, a site operated by Metro Tasmania and H2H Energy is intended for private use by Metro Tasmania for an electric bus trial.
Hydrogen versus battery electric vehicles
Refuelling times, driving range and charging infrastructure
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Hydrogen offers significantly faster refuelling times than battery electric vehicles (BEV).
Where a BEV takes at least 18 minutes via ultra-fast DC charging, a hydrogen tank can be replenished in as little as five minutes. That’s a clear advantage for use-cases that require minimal downtime such as taxis or transport fleets.
Hydrogen also typically provides greater driving range and is more energy dense than BEVs and combustion cars. FCEV technology is usually lighter than BEV powertrains, too, making it more attractive for sectors like aviation.
A key disadvantage is a shortage of charging infrastructure – as explored above, Australia currently has only around a dozen hydrogen refuelling stations.
Hydrogen is also a volatile and flammable element that leaks easily and must be stored carefully.
Grey and blue hydrogen
Another barrier is cost. Despite its abundance, hydrogen rarely exists in its pure form and is currently far more expensive to produce than petrol or diesel.
It is also carbon intensive. More than 90 per cent of the world’s hydrogen is created by burning fossil fuels (known as grey hydrogen) which releases emissions into the atmosphere.
Blue hydrogen uses the same process but captures the emissions and stores them underground.
For hydrogen to be completely green, renewable energy is used to electrolyse water – in a process called electrolysis – but it is costly and incurs huge energy losses.
Between 20-30 per cent of the energy is lost during creation, while another 26 per cent is wasted in storage and transportation, meaning almost half of the energy is lost before it even makes it to a vehicle.
Emerging innovations in hydrogen fuel
Exploring white hydrogen and ammonia as alternatives
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A promising solution is white hydrogen, which extracts pure hydrogen gas from natural deposits beneath the earth’s surface.
It’s not yet clear how or why white hydrogen forms but the benefit is that unlike fossil fuels, which take millions of years to develop, white hydrogen is continuously and naturally replenished.
White hydrogen has been discovered in Australia, Europe, Mali and Africa, and an estimated one million tonne deposit – more than the world’s current annual production of grey hydrogen – was recently found in Spain.
The cost benefit of white hydrogen is significant. Where green hydrogen costs around €5 per kilogram, white hydrogen costs just 50 euro cents per kilogram.
Ammonia alternative
Another emerging alternative is using ammonia as a fuel source. Toyota recently partnered with Chinese car maker GAC and Toyota to manufacture a two-litre engine that uses ammonia as an alternative fuel.
Ammonia is a pungent gas, can be created by using hydrogen from water electrolysis, and has around half the energy density of conventional petrol, but emits 90 per cent less carbon dioxide.
Just like hydrogen, however, ammonia is difficult to transport. It is also toxic and potentially fatal to humans.
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The road ahead: predictions for hydrogen fuel
Insights from Hyundai Australia’s Scott Nargar
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Scott Nargar is Hyundai Australia’s senior manager of future mobility and government relations. Here are his predictions for hydrogen fuel in Australia over the next five years.
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Greater production and export
“In Australia we’re going to see more renewable energy projects get started, and a lot of those will have a hydrogen link," Nargar told create. “A lot of companies are looking at manufacturing megawatts of hydrogen – and, in some cases, terawatts.
“It will be used for industrial applications in the domestic transport sector, but there’s a big focus on hydrogen exports to Korea, Japan and even as far away as Germany.”
Heavy vehicles a big opportunity
Hyundai is currently testing a hydrogen-powered truck in New Zealand, and another is on its way to Australia. Nargar predicts three or four rival brands will have vehicle fleets on the road by 2026-27.
Hyundai’s plan is to work with consortiums to install a “cluster recharging network” in Canberra for back-to-base transport solutions.
“Our focus is to use a clusters model to run a larger volume of trucks in the ACT and then expand into South Australia, Western Australia, Tasmania and regional areas from there,” Nargar said. “The heavy vehicle space has the most opportunity for hydrogen, followed by passenger vehicles, then rail and marine.”
Greener generation
Cutting-edge production methods are emerging, whereby hydrogen gas can be produced from plastic waste or a combination of solar power and green waste. The latter reduces the energy needed to extract hydrogen from water.
Hyundai is also investing in using plastic waste and biogas from food waste and livestock manure to produce hydrogen.
Nano fuel-cell technology
Nargar predicts technological advances in the fuel-cell stack will result in big improvements in range, packaging and performance for FCEVs.
“The holy grail is nano fuel-cell technology: making the fuel stack as small as possible," he said. “This will significantly increase the efficiency of the stack but also reduce its packaging size while significantly increasing its output.”
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